Targeting the American market for medicines, ca. 1950s-1970s: ICI and Rhône-Poulenc compared.

"21: See TadajewskiM.JonesD. G. Brian , eds., History of Marketing Thought (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2008). Although scientific marketing has a long history stretching back to F. W. Taylor and the birth of scientific management at the end of the nineteenth century, it took off in the period between the wars, influenced by publications such as Claude Hopkins’s 1923 volume Scientific Advertising Spurred by wartime developments in operations research and management science models targeting mass markets in the 1950s and 1960s, and relayed by American firms of management consultants, it then spread from the United States to Europe. For a history of scientific management, see, e.g., MerkleJ. A. , Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980). More specifically on marketing science/scientific marketing, see the special issue of Journal of Marketing (Fall 1983)."

"The research for this article has been supported over the long term by the Wellcome Trust (but I particularly acknowledge grants 082808/B/07/Z, 086843, and 09568/Z/11/A). It also benefited from an Exchange Program grant from the European Science Foundation’s Research Networking Program Drug Standards Standard Drugs (ESF-DRUGS), and I thank not only its chair, Volker Hess, but also my hosts in Paris, Jean-Paul Gaudillière, and in Lyon, Jonathan Simon. In that connection, I wish to extend my gratitude to all my European (and North American!) colleagues, who organized or participated in ESF-DRUGS conferences, and whose papers and feedback on my own were at once engaging and stimulating. An earlier version of this article was communicated at the “Standardizing and Marketing Drugs in the 20th Century” workshop (Berlin, October 7–8, 2010), and I am particularly grateful to its organizers, Ulrike Thoms and Jean-Paul Gaudillière, who obtained funding from the DFG and ANR for this workshop. Of course this article would not have been possible without the companies that have in the past granted me permission to use their archives or the archivists or persons responsible for guiding me through various catalogues and databases. I thank all the people concerned, but especially Audrey Cooper and Marie-Thérèse Bombon, whose skill at navigating the archives of their respective companies, AstraZeneca and Sanofi-Aventis, were most valuable to me. Both have since retired, and without any clear long-term archive policies, their departure signifies the loss not only of knowledge about the firms’ archives, but of a major source of corporate memory. Last but not least I am very grateful to the anonymous referees who helped me to develop my analysis and conclusions further, and to the editorial team of the Bulletin who made the project a reality."