Innovation institutions and the opioid crisis.

"204: See Staff of S. Permanent Subcomm. on Investigations, supra note 87, at 74, 80 (reporting that from January to August 2018, Medicare Part D paid over $45 million and Medicaid paid over $5 million for Evzio); see id. at 1 (describing sales efforts focused on getting doctors to sign ‘paperwork indicating that EVZIO was medically necessary, which ensured the drug would be covered by government programs like Medicare and Medicaid’)."

"Estimates of Funding for Various Research, Condition, and Disease Categories (RCDC) , Nat’l Insts. of Health, https://report.nih.gov/categorical_spending.aspx (May 18, 2018). See Estimates of Funding for Various Research, Condition, and Disease Categories (RCDC) , supra note 248. Deepak Hegde & David C. Mowery, Politics and Funding in the U.S. Public Biomedical R&D System , 322 Science 1797, 1798 (2008). See Brian Kennedy, Americans Broadly Favor Government Funding for Medical and Science Research , Pew Res. Ctr. Fact Tank, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/07/03/americans-broadly-favor-government-funding-for-medical-and-science-research (July 3, 2018)."

"See Thomas J. Moore et al., Estimated Costs of Pivotal Trials for Novel Therapeutic Agents Approved by the US Food and Drug Administration, 2015–2016 , 178 JAMA Internal Med. 1451, 1454, table 2 (2018) (examining the 59 novel drugs approved by the FDA in 2015 and 2016 and reporting that the approvals were based on 138 clinical trials, of which over 80% were placebo-controlled, over 94% involved over 100 patients and over 52% involved over 500 patients, and over 35% had a treatment duration longer than 6 months)."