COVID-19 vaccination produces exercise-responsive SARS-CoV-2 specific T-cells regardless of infection history.

"Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests."

"We recruited 18 participants (8 males, 10 females) to participate in this investigation. Participants were young, healthy individuals (21–44 years) free of any cardiovascular, pulmonary, or autoimmune diseases. Eleven virus-naive participants received the Pfizer 2-dose COVID-19 vaccine regimen during this study period and were considered to have “synthetic” immunity. An additional 7 participants who were previously infected and subsequently recovered also received a COVID-19 vaccine (Johnson and Johnson, n = 5; Pfizer, n = 2) and were considered to have “hybrid” immunity. All post-vaccination trials took place 3–4 weeks after final inoculation. All participants completed a brief medical history questionnaire as well as the American Heart Association/American College of Sports Medicine Pre-participation and Screening Questionnaire to ensure they were identified as “low risk” for cardiovascular disease and able to perform vigorous-intensity exercise. In addition, participants were eligible if they reported an active-physical activity rating >4. Research participants were non-users of tobacco products, consumed <10 standard alcoholic beverages per week, and were not taking prescription medications that could affect cardiovascular, metabolic, or immune responses to exercise. After screening, all participants provided written and oral informed consent, and all experimental procedures were conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines provided by the Belmont Report. The University of Arizona Institutional Review Board granted ethical approval, and the trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov (NCT05019456)."